Discover Haiti: Haiti History - Dessalines: hero or tyrant Part 1

HISTORY

Jean-Jacques Dessalines: 1758-1806 - Hero or tyrant? Part 1

October 17 marks the anniversary of the death of nation founder, Dessalines. On that date, almost 200 years ago in 1806, Jean Jacques Dessalines, emperor, father of the Independence would be savagely assassinated. A scant two years before, glorified by the illustrious victories of the Independence, the man was revered as a semi-god, sworn complete obedience, and named governor-for-life. But on that date, he was so hated by all, so despised, so detested that it was seen fit that he died the most horrible and humiliating of deaths. Fearless soldier, formidable general, great strategist, master tactician, visionary, yet ruthless leader, and unforgiving commander, Dessalines remains one of the most revered yet enigmatic characters in Haiti's history.

Even his actual birthplace is a source of controversy. Some sources claimed that he was born in Guinea, West Africa and came to the colony as a young man. However, those sources are so tainted of spite and aversion that their trustworthiness suffer greatly(1). Most trustworthy sources, including Thomas Madiou (2) and Beaubrun Ardouin affirm that he saw light in the North of nowadays-Haiti on a plantation in an area called Cormiers, (today, Cormier), in the hills near the town of Grande Rivière du Nord 25 kms from Cap-Haitien. That plantation belonged to a french man named Duclos. The young born was given the first name of Jacques. Hence, he will be called Jacques Duclos, as the practice was that slaves took their master's last name. Of Dessalines' mother or father, no one knows for sure, as slaves did not get birth certificates. The only known parent of his is a certain aunt named Victoria Montou, that he called affectionately Toya. During the war, old Victoria Montou fought against the French in the Cahos mountains of the Artibonite region . She would remain in the house of the emperor until her death, June 12, 1805.

Duclos was an especially cruel master. Slaves on his plantation were treated with the utmost severity. Dessalines was strong, courageous, hard working, but very rebellious. He was severely punished for his frequent lapses and his rebellious nature. Dessalines would bear many physical scars reminding him of those days. But foremost, he would keep a vivid memory of those days.The horrors of servitude will sow in him the seeds of a great hatred and distrust towards his masters and later on an implacable resolve to fight servitude and colonialism.

When Jacques attained the age of 30 or so, he would be sold off on the market. He would be bought by a free black man named Dessalines. That man himself had gotten that name from a french engineer named Des Salines with whom he was attached in the past. Hence Jacques Duclos would become Jean Jacques Dessalines. Dessalines's new master was a carpenter and roof maker. He taught his new pupil that trade and treated him with care. For about three years, Dessalines would stay in the service of that master. He would be well treated and repaid his master with courageous work. He was nevertheless at times "antisocial". Of his character his master said: "Il était bon ouvrier, mais mauvais chien" (He was a good worker but was not docile as a dog). After the Independence, the governor-for-life would take his old master in his house and made the highest rank employee at his personal service.

In 1791, though, he would join the slave revolt that would ultimately lead to independence. He followed the example given by the Boukman, Jean François and Biassou, early band leaders. He became a lieutenant in the Army of Jean François. He followed Jean François when he lent his services to the Royal majesty of Spain (3). There, he met Toussaint Bréda later called Louverture (contraction of L'Ouverture: The Opening) who was climbing the ranks and gaining notoriety for his successive brilliant victories against forces far superior to his. When the French Republic proclaimed freedom for all slaves, Dessalines followed Toussaint who rallied to the French flag in order to fight the armies of the Spanish and British crowns.

In a span of five years, Toussaint would utilize brilliant political savvy to play all forces in the colony against each other and eliminate one by one the enemies of Liberty. He had managed to protect freedom for all in the colony, improved the condition of the masses while restoring prosperity ot the colony. By 1801, Toussaint would become the most powerful man of any color in the colony of St-Domingue. As Toussaint's vigorous right arm, Dessalines gained prominence in earning many victories for him. He distinguished himself by his blind obedience and his efficiency: Troops led by Dessalines were the best organized, had the highest morale and were the bravest in combat. They respected and feared their thundering commander whose orders were blindly excuted. These armies were no longer a band of marroons, not a band of disorganized men with machetes, pitchforks and sticks. Toussaint, Dessalines and many others became quite versed in western military strategy and tactics that they supplemented with cunning, originality breaking the mold of conventional combat and knowledge of the terrain. The troops were about as organized as any of the European armies of the time, with infantries, cavalry, and artillery. What they lacked in flashy uniforms, weaponry and standard warfare methodology, they made up for with courage, ingenuity, and bravery.

At the onset of the Civil War (1799-1800) that would oppose Toussaint, and Andre Rigaud, leader of the mostly mulatto faction calling from the South, Dessalines had risen to the ranks of brigadier general. Dessalines won victory after hard fought victory for Toussaint. He solidified the defenses of the Western Department while at the same taking a heavily fortified Jacmel, Petit Goave, Miragoane and Anse a Veau. For his bravery and distinction, Toussaint made him général de division (Army Corps general), and bestowed upon him the greatest distinctions. In 1801, he was chosen to terminate the insurrection of general Moyse, Toussaint's own nephew (4), in the North. He put down his popular uprising in a matter of a few weeks.

By 1801, Toussaint Louverture's power became ultimate. He named himself governor-for-life, and promulgated a constitution without the approval of France. He elevated his black lieutenents to the highest echelons of the colonial army. He made Dessalines commandant of the western department that included the city of Port-Republicain (now, Port-au-Prince). Toussaint had acccumulated so much power and acted with such despotism that in the end he alienated the sympathies of the colonial population. He had lost the support of the masses since the Moyse Affair, and yet never managed to reassure the French Government of his loyalty. First Consul and future emperor Bonaparte estimated that French control on St.Domingue was slipping away and that Citizen Toussaint had gone too far. He decided to send a formidable expeditionary force to bring Toussaint in line and, as a secret mission, to restore slavery in the colony. The expedition commanded by capitaine-general Victor Emmanuel Leclerc, Bonaparte's own brother-in-law, was 21,000 men strong. Those men were veterans of the greatest victories of the French Republic and were commanded by some of the best generals and admirals in service at the moment. Among those we shall note generals Rochambeau, Boudet, Duga, Hardy, Kerveseau, Desfourneaux, Pamphile de Lacroix, admiral Villaret-Joyeuse, and rear admiral Latouche-Treville. By 1803, total french troops sent at St.Domingue would amount to 55,132 (Thomas Madiou: Histoire D'Haiti Tome III, page 136). Of those troops, less than 1,200 would ever see France again!

The expeditionary force arrived at the colony in late January of the year 1802. At seeing the french troops, many rejoiced that Toussaint would finallly be chastised. Very few understood that in the end, those forces were sent to re-enslave black men and bring color distinction. THe Bulk of the population turned their backs on Toussaint, while most of the colonial army joined the ranks of Leclerc without hardly firing a shot (remember that this was still a French colony, and therefore that the colonial army was before all a French army). Among the ones who fought for Toussaint, Dessalines, as well as Henri Christophe, Maurepas and Lamartiniere. A month after the campaign began, the forces of Toussaint were losing on all fronts even though they were inflicting heavy casualties on Leclerc's Army. Dessalines, having lost Port-au-Prince, was being beaten into retreat northward towards Toussaint in the Artibonite, while Christophe beaten in the North was now back to back with Toussaint near Gonaives. Meanwhile the brave Maurepas was cut off from Toussaint. Toussaint's army in the Artibonite amounted to less than 6,000 men while french forces marching towards Toussaint, Dessalines and Christophe totaled almost 20,000 with far more munitions, and more, better cannons.

The landmark battle of this campaign took place near the town of Petite-Riviere De L'Artibonite, around a fort called La Crete-a-Pierrot. That was one of the fiercest battles ever fought by forces anywhere on Earth in this early part of the 19th Century. Barricaded inside the small fort, 1,300 men commanded by Dessalines, Lamartiniere and Magny resisted assault after assault from 16,000 of the best of Europe aided by 2,000 of the colonial army. Dessalines was as revered by his soldiers as he was feared. One morning, he noticed some men nonchalantly grouped around a cannon. He asked Magny: "what are those men doing over there?" Magny responded "That's a cannon, general sir, that we are moving to this opening overlooking the town". "Such slowness! It will be noon and those men would not be finished" With that, he started showing some impatience and reached for his cane. In no time, as if by magic, the piece had reached its destination.

He had earned those men's respect not just because he was a hard commander, but because he fought with more bravery and fearlessness than any. Just as much, he always found ways to infuse dynamism and enthusiasm in his troops. The morning of the first assault, Dessalines was seated pensively on a stack of cannon balls, looking at column after endless column of french bluejackets being deployed in the plain down below. All of a sudden, he awoke from his meditation and took hold of a lit torch. He pointed it towards an open powder keg and said in Creole: "I only want to keep with me the bravest; all those willing to return to slavery can leave the fort now, while those who want to die as free men gather around me" In Unison, all acclaim "We would all die for Liberty" At those words he said "I will blow you all up if the french enter this compound". In such manner, Dessalines would get beyond the maximum out of his troops. Every assault was sent back with huge losses. In one ferocious assault, the fierce French soldiers would finally make it into the fortification and attacked with the dreaded bayonets. In the bloody exchange, Dessalines, very recognizable in the thick of it all was the target of many blows of the french grenadiers. But as a fearless tiger, he hacked left and right with his sword, oblivious to his wounds while the attack was reppelled one last time. The french had lost almost 2,000 in that battle, Dessalines 400.

Leclerc, tired of seeing the best of his troops being wasted in futile assaults resorted to bombarding the emplacement. Days of bombardment would silence the cannons of the fort which ran out of munitions and food. Bravely, they returned fire loading their rifles with small stones, and whatever else they could find. Before long the fortification no longer provided cover, and the cannon shots were harvesting the bravest of them. The garrison, now only 600 strong ultimately was ordered to abandon the fort (5). Lamartiniere observed the French army positions and resolved to try to force an opening in an area 3,000 troops occupied. Armed with their bayonets they carved themselves a hole out of the siege. The maneuver cost them half their companions, however, they managed the feat of making it through and what is more, they even turned back to repell their pursuants with heavy losses.

La Crête a Pierrot made legends out of many men. However, it just about sealed the fate of Toussaint. With the rest of his army, he was flying to the rescue of the besieged. Alas, he arrived too late. It is now three months into the campaign. That was one of the most savage wars. Since the beginning Toussaint's orders were to execute prisoners. In order to terrrorize his adversaries and show their determination, Dessalines also massacred many whites in the cities he was going through, while houses, whole cities were burnt to the ground. His famous motto was "Koupe Têt, Boule Kay" (kill and burn everything). Leclerc in the early part of the campaign found it more productive in trying to convince elements of the colonial army to join him against Toussaint. But as the losses mounted on his side and especially after La Crete a Pierrot, he too ordered for prisoners and wounded to be executed.

Time was running out for the governor-for-life though. Now, his only hope is to drag the fight long enough and make it to the rainy season. He was hoping that by then, the tropical climate would have taken a toll on the Europeans and that the flood waters would help even out the field. Also, by then, he was hoping to turn the conflict into a national war by convincing all sectors that Leclerc was there to bring back slavery and restore cast distinctions. Leclerc too wanted to stop the fight. Each victory cost him too much of his forces, and he did not want to fight troops who in their desperation were ready to everything. His losses were approaching 5,000 men, while hundreds of millions of francs of colonial wealth were lost. Leclerc had already sent messengers to him to negotiate a cease-fire. Toussaint at first refused. However when Chistophe surprisingly surrendered, it left his northern flank exposed and precipitated the end. Toussaint decided to end the war. Dessalines energically and at length pleaded with him to keep the fight going, but in the end, the governor's decision would win. His plan was to take a break and then wait til the rains to re-open hostilities. Dessalines on the other was convinced that peace with the whites was no longer possible.

Leclerc offered Toussaint an honorable cease-fire. Toussaint would simply retire to his plantations in the region of Ennery in the Artibonite, while the rest of his army would be integrated into the expeditionary army to form one. Before agreeing Toussaint managed to win a diplomatic victory. He obtained from Leclerc that all the ranks he had given to his officers would be preserved, including Dessalines as General de Division (Army Corps General). Leclerc was reluctant, especially since Dessalines was the one the population considered as the most implacable enemy of whites. He resisted, but finally accepted. Before reporting to St-Marc, Dessalines and Toussaint spoke one last time, and saluted each other with much emotion. That was the last time they would see each other. It was May 1st, 1802.

Toussaint was finished though. But many feared his presence in the colony. All the former officers who had surrendered feared that if he returned to power, he would punish them. The men of color saw in him the ruthless governor of the Civil War. The masses saw in him a tyrant. The whites, Leclerc saw in him, the constant danger of his influence, and the constant threat that he would try to rekindle the conflict. He was constantly watched, his correspondance, opened and examined, his views tested. Dessalines knew that Toussaint was finished. He had always been loyal to Toussaint, but now, he felt that the road to Independence would not run through Toussaint. His loyalty will be tested and his ambition would grow. He was the highest ranked of his peers. Leclerc would resolve to have Toussaint deported, but he also wanted to test Dessalines allegiances.

(To be Continued)

Notes on Dessalines:

1-Most foreign writers claiming Dessalines being born in Africa base themselves on the work of a Dubroca: Vida de J.J. Dessalines, Jefe de los negros de Santo Domingo (1805). He attributes Dessalines' cruelty at war to his african origin by stating that the young Dessalines, fresh from the savannas was completely ignorant of European culture and that dominated by the influences of his origin, could only harbor feelings of barbaric vengence and assassination. That work was greatly criticized by many including Richard Pattee, and among Haitian historians, Timoleon C. Brutus (L'homme D'Airain, 1945) for its lack of objectivity, lack of understanding of the plight of slaves and for its racist tone.
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2- Thomas Madiou in his monumental work: Histoire d'Haiti (1848) offers no doubts as to Dessalines birthplace being the plantation named Cormiers belonging to a frenchman named Duclos. Since he had access to many first-hand documents as well as the testimony of many former war heroes, his account suffers no doubts on our part. T.C. Brutus cited above also refers in his book to testimony from a man named St-Julien Jerome from Cap-Haitien who affirms knowing from his grandfather that that one's father (therefore his great-grandfather) was Dessalines childhood friend. . Research done in the area have discovered that there are really two plantations named Cormiers and Duclos adjoining each other in the area of Grande Rivière du Nord mentioned. Under the government of President Nissage Saget, in 1875, some of the area would be renamed Cormier (note the new spelling) to mark the birthplace of the country's founder.
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3- The reader may find it surprising that the revolted slaves lent their services to a foreign power. Those were the days of the French Revolution as well, and just like in France, royalists and republicans were fighting each other. Both groups would promise general freedom for all slaves who would fight for them. That tactic would be adopted by Spain, who realy wanted to get back the western half of the island that they had abandoned to the French about a century earlier. [Go Back]

4- General Moyse, Toussaint's nephew became tired of the way Toussaint was protecting France's interests and led a band of peasants into revolt against the governor. As it is, Toussaint was not yet resolved to break totally from France. He imagined at the time some form of protectorate with himself representing the authority of France and at the same time guaranteeing liberty and civil rights for his class. Moyse's insurrection was not only a challenge to his power, but also a litmus test of his allegiance. He chose to sacrifice Moyse to Peace and to the greater good, thereby showing to the French government that he was still their governor. Alas, that decision stroke a decisive blow to Toussaint's power while it did nothing to reassure France of his good intentions. [Go Back]

5- Dessalines and a couple of aides had already left the fort to go after a cache of weapons he had in the mountains, and also to try to incite the laborers of the region to join them. [Go Back]

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